Tips for Writing a Good Reaction Paper Essay Example for Free

Tips for Writing a Good Reaction Paper Essay Read the given article carefully. Think about 1 or 2 major points you want to articulate in your reaction paper. Describe your point first (Lessons Learned, What you agreed on†¦ or What you disagreed on†¦) Justify why you think that way. Provide one or two real-world example(s) You may use any example you are familiar with, including ones we discuss in class or ones from the textbook. However, please do not assume that I know what you are talking about when you just mention a name (e. g. Enron or Wal-Mart). Provide sufficient background information and how your example(s) support your argument. Provide how your point relates to Public Relations (e.g. so what does this mean in Public Relations?) Desirable Formats Follow step 3 6 to make each point clearly (make 1 2 major points per each reaction paper) (normally one argument per one paragraph) After you finish articulating all the points, have a conclusive statement at the end. Provide reaction paper #, date, your name, and student ID # Limit your quantity to 1 page Please proofread your reaction paper carefully to avoid any grammatical mistakes or typos. What Not To Do Just summarize what you read (I want to see your professional opinions not a summary) No evidence to back up your point (e.g. no examples) Provide random examples without making careful effort to relate to your point Remember! Provide appropriate examples to support each argument and insights about how it relates to Public Relations (PR perspectives).

Social Psychology: Concepts and Research

Social Psychology: Concepts and Research Sophia Ashraf Social Psychology Assignment At times people and groups resort to negative, cruel and even murderous behaviour. Drawing upon contemporary or historical examples analyse whether this behaviour is influenced more by social pressure/structure or by something more personally sinister or selfish. Social psychologists have devoted extensive interest in studying the attitudes, feelings and behaviours of human beings. They have come up with numerous explanations for both helpful and aggressive human behaviours. Philosophers explain these differences in terms of human nature. For instance, Rousseau believes humans are innately peaceful creatures. Therefore, anti-social behaviours are a consequence of wider societal and structural factors. In contrast, Thomas Hobbes believes humans are born evil and are predisposed to criminality. Overall, history is filled with numerous examples of altruistic behaviours. One such example is of Oskar Schindler, who risked his life and saved over 4,000 Jews during the Holocaust. Equally, history has also witnessed inhumane atrocities which include the My Lai Massacre in Vietnam in the 1960’s and the Rwanda and Bosnia genocides of the 1990’s (Hogg Cooper, 2007; Hogg Vaughan, 2014). Social psychologists have offered numerous explanations that influence the behaviours, attitudes and perceptions of people, in performing horrendous crimes against humanity. These include: social pressures like conformity and obedience, and also individual personality traits such as possessing an evil, sadistic and psychopathic character. In this essay, I will use examples of historical and contemporary atrocities, social psychological studies and theoretical concepts to explain the reasons behind why certain individuals and groups commit negative, cruel and murderous behaviours. In doing so, I will analyse whether this behaviour is influenced more by social pressure/structure or by something more personally sinister or selfish (ibid). Social psychologists identify obedience as a major social influence on human behaviour. This is because it involves obeying the orders of other living beings. Psychologists have found obedience to have both a positive and negative impact on human behaviour. For example, it prevents chaos in everyday life as people are socialised to obey laws such as traffic lights, and do so even without the presence of an authority figure. Alternatively, obedience has also proven destructive as many people have blindly obeyed the orders of an authority figure without thinking of the consequences of their actions. Social psychologist Stanley Milgram (1963, 1974) was highly interested in the effects of obedience on human behaviour, and in particular whether an individual would follow the commands of an authority figure if it involved harming another living being (Aronson et al, 2013; Hogg Vaughan, 2014). In 1963, Milgram carried out a famous ground-breaking experiment on obedience to authority at Yale University. He recruited around forty participants from the community via an advertisement, to participate in a study that tested the effects of punishment on learning. The experiment consisted of three roles which include an experimenter who was a man dressed in a white lab coat, a teacher whose role was always played by the participants, and a learner named Mr Wallace who was actually a confederate of the researcher. All participants were provided with a shock generating machine which had thirty levers in total and ranged from 15 to 450 volts. Participants were also given a sample shock of 45 volts before the experiment commenced. As part of the study, Mr Wallace had to learn a set of pair associates, whereas the teacher was required to administer electric shocks progressively to the learner each time they gave an incorrect answer (ibid). During the experiment, the learner made some correct and incorrect responses. Whenever the learner received a shock for an incorrect response, he would cry and scream in pain and often demanded to be released from the experiment. Consequently, this made participants feel agitated and want to withdraw from the research. In response, the experimenter would reply with a series of direct coercive statements such as ‘the experiment requires that you continue’, and ‘you have no other choice, you must go on’. (Hogg Vaughan, 2014: 242). Milgram’s initial assumption was that his participants would refuse to follow orders that involved harming another individual. However, he was extremely shocked when his results revealed that 65% of his participants continued administering electric shocks till the very end. This study illustrates the devastating impact of obedience, a social pressure which induces ordinary people to perform damaging acts against innocent vict ims (Hogg Vaughan, 2014; Helm Morelli, 1979). Milgram’s experiment has received considerable support from numerous researchers such as Hofling et al, 1966 who found that nurses also obeyed doctor’s orders to administer what they knew were harmfully incorrect doses of drugs to their patients. Milgram’s study has also received substantial criticism for its ethical concerns. Firstly unknown to the participants, the learner was actually a confederate who did not receive any electric shocks throughout the study. Secondly, Milgram’s participants were not provided with a fully informed consent and right to withdraw. This is because the experimenter verbally prodded them to continue during the experiment. His participants were also deceived about the true aims of the study, as Milgram was actually investigating the effects of obedience to authority on human behaviour. Milgram’s findings also lack generalisation to the wider population. This is because the study involved male participants and was conduc ted in a laboratory setting which does not reflect real life situations (ibid). Many historical and contemporary crimes have been committed in the name of obedience to authority. These include historic atrocities witnessed during World War II and the Nazi era, and also contemporary atrocities such as those which have been witnessed in Iraq, Afghanistan and Syria. In all of these horrific events, the perpetrators have claimed to be following orders. For instance, the Nazi official Adolf Eichmann who was held responsible for the death of six million Jews claimed he was following and implementing Hitler’s orders. Eichmann’s trial was covered by the journalist Hannah Arendt (1963) in her book ‘Eichmann in Jerusalem: A report on the banality of evil’. Like Milgram, Arendt was also interested in what made Eichmann and other war criminals commit such devastating crimes against humanity (Aronson et al, 2013; Hogg Vaughan, 2014). Within her book, Arendt reveals a shocking finding and asserts that ‘these ‘monsters’ may not have been monsters at all. They were often mild-mannered, softly spoken, courteous people who repeatedly and politely explained that they did what they did not because they hated Jews (or Muslims etc.) but because- they were simply obeying orders’ (Hogg Vaughan, 2014: 240). Here, Arendt illustrates the importance of structural explanations, in particular obedience which a form of social influence that predisposes war time criminals to commit negative, cruel and murderous behaviours. Nevertheless, this structural explanation has been criticised for ignoring the very fact that an individual’s pathological personality and a group’s cultural norms, may also make them more vulnerable to anti-social and murderous behaviours (Aronson et al, 2013; Hogg Vaughan, 2014). To explain a perpetrators negative human behaviour, Milgram makes reference to the terms the agentic state which denotes absolute obedience. He claims that within the agentic state people see themselves as mere instruments obeying the commands of an authority figure. As a result, individuals experience a diffusion of responsibility for their actions. This is because they transfer personal responsibility onto the authority figure. For this reason, Milgram believes that the agentic state can be used to explain the behaviour of perpetrators, who claim they are not liable for their actions as they were simply following orders. Moreover, even the threat of punishment for disobedience can force many people and groups to perform criminal behaviours against their own wish. However, it must be noted that not everyone obeys the commands of an authority figure, and many people do display resistance to commands that go against their own beliefs (ibid). Social psychologists have also identified conformity as another major social influence on human behaviour. It is defined as a process in which the individual changes their attitudes and behaviours in accordance with the group’s views. Psychologists have identified two types of conformity. These are informational and normative social influence. Firstly, informational influence is a type of conformity where the individual relies on information, knowledge and opinions of others as evidence about reality. Secondly, normative social influence is a type of conformity which is heavily based on others expectations. Here, the individual conforms because they feel a need to gain acceptance and social approval from their group. They also want to avoid feeling socially ostracised. In support of conformity pressures Mark Twain asserts, ‘we are discreet sheep; we wait to see how the drove is going and then go with the drove’ (cited in Kassin et al, 2008: 221). This quote shows how suggestible and compliant people can be as a result of numerous group pressures (Aronson et al, 2013; Kassin et al, 2008). The famous psychologist Philip Zimbardo was highly interested in understanding the downside of conformity, and coined the concept ‘The Lucifer Effect’ to describe how good people turn evil. In 1971, he conducted a famous study named the Stanford Prison Experiment, where paid volunteers were randomly assigned to the role of either a prisoner or a guard. The prisoners were arrested from their house, and were taken to a prison which consisted of bare necessities. Their possessions were removed from them and they were provided with a uniform and a unique ID number. Alternatively, the guards were also given a uniform to wear, along with items such as clubs and whistles which were symbolic of their authority. All prisoners were required to follow a set of fixed rules; otherwise they risked receiving severe punishment (Baron and Branscombe, 2012: Meyers, 2008; Zimbardo, 2007). Within the experiment, Zimbardo played the role of a prison warden who was interested in observing the reactions of his participants. He also wanted to know whether his participants would conform to the norms and requirements of their roles and whether they would behave like genuine prisoners and guards. Zimbardo found that the prisoners were rebellious at first but, then later became passive whereas, the guards grew more and more brutal and sadistic in their character. This was seen in the manner in which they harassed and dehumanised prisoners. Zimbardo found that these changes in behaviour were so disturbing that it became necessary to end the study after six days, when initial plans called for it to last two weeks. According to the individualistic explanation of crime and deviance, such inhumane behaviours may be attributed to individual factors such as a genetic predisposition to criminality (ibid). In opposition to the individualistic explanation, Zimbardo (2007) adopts a structural perspective to explain his findings. He argues that a person inclination to conform to the norms of their social roles such as that of a soldier or prison guard can have harmful consequences, as they may make decent people perform indecent behaviours against members of their own species. A real life parallel to the Stanford Prison experiment is the disturbing events of the Abu Ghraib prison which started in Iraq in 2003. In this horrific event, American soldiers physically abused Iraqi prisoners as they perceived them to be less than human. According to the individualistic explanation, these horrific atrocities are attributed to individual deficiencies and limitations. For instance, people who are labelled psychopaths, sadists, and evil creatures are more vulnerable to behave inhumanely with innocent people than psychologically normal people (Aronson et al, 2013: Baron and Branscombe, 2012; Keller, 2006). In relation to the Nazi Holocaust, the historian Daniel Goldhagen argues that ‘many German citizens were willing anti-Semitic participants in the Holocaust, not mere ordinary people forced to follow orders’ (Kassin et al, 2008: 243). Therefore, it may well be argued that the Germans had a character defect and were prejudiced and pathologically frustrated individuals. These factors influenced them to behave with cruelty towards others. On the other hand, developmental psychologists argue that anti-social and aggressive personality disorders can also predispose individuals to resort to criminal behaviours. For example, Adorno et al, 1950 adopts a psychodynamic framework and argues that early childhood rearing practices that are harsh and authoritarian produce individuals who are obsessed by authority and are more likely to be hostile and aggressive towards other people. This provides support for the claim that personality factors cause individuals to behave in a negative and cruel manner towards others (Aronson et al, 2013; Hogg Cooper, 2007; Kassin et al, 2008). In conclusion, social influence has proved to be a fundamental area of inquiry for social psychologists who attempt to explain the numerous influences on human behaviour. Psychologists argue that people and groups are subject to powerful and complex social pressures. These may originate from people, groups and institutions. Social psychologists explain violent and anti-social human behaviours as being either attributed to the individual, situation or system. Social psychologists have identified conformity and obedience to play an important role in influencing human behaviour. They have also identified individual factors such as a genetic predisposition to crime and also personality attributes such as a possessing a selfish, sinister and authoritarian personality to predispose people to behave criminally. There are also other factors that may shape. These include prejudice, discrimination and a radical ideology which may predispose people and groups to behave inhumanely with others. O verall, research on crime and deviance have revealed that it is highly complex to determine whether negative, cruel and murderous human behaviours are due to social/structural pressures or individual factors or a combination of both. Sexual Offences Act 2003: An Analysis Sexual Offences Act 2003: An Analysis The questions as posed raises a number of issues concerning the interplay between child and youth sexuality and the criminal law that is not readily resolved. The question shall be addressed using the following analytical approach that is intended to be considered progressively, commencing with the identification of the specific provisions of the Sexual Offences Act that demand the greatest scrutiny in when considering the interests of children. The analysis then explores the implications of the key terms employed in the question and how each may be interpreted in light of the Sexual Offences Act provisions; ‘children, ‘protection, ‘sexual abuse, ‘legitimate sexual behaviour, and ‘mistake are highlighted. The expression ‘over-criminalise is afforded a distinct consideration in view of the breadth of the potential sexual acts that might be prosecuted pursuant to the Act, coupled with the potential reach of both police and prosecutorial discretion in these proceedings. The analysis includes the review and inclusion of relevant academic commentaries that consider the issues noted above; the paper concludes with the assertion that while the Sexual Offences Act is an imperfect mechanism upon which to construct a protective scheme for children who are exploited or otherwise the victim of nonconsensual sexual activity, the current statute represents a legislative scheme that is clearly rooted in the public interest and one that addresses a number of important societal issues. The Sexual Offences Act, 2003 The Act provides for the regulation of a broad range of defined types of sexual misconduct. Commencing with s. 5 (Rape of a child), the enumerated Child Sex Offences provisions that are set out at sections 9 through 19 define the age limits applicable to establishing proof of the various enumerated offences. Section 10 (Inciting a child to sexual activity) is an example of the age definition employed in all of the Child Sex Offences: A person aged 18 or over (A) commits an offence if he intentionally causes or incites another person (B) to engage in an activity the activity is sexual, and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Either: (i) B is under 16 and A does not reasonably believe that B is 16   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  or over, or (ii) B is under 13 Various acts of sexual touching are criminalised: the offence of ‘Grooming (s.15) is noteworthy in that the proof of the offence does not require proof of any physical contact directed by the perpetrator to the child victim to establish criminal liability for a sexual offence. The ‘grooming provisions are primarily directed to Internet based contacts (such as by way of Internet chat rooms) or mobile telephone media, such as text messaging between adults and children as defined. Commentators have suggested ‘à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦that applying the ‘grooming clause in practice is highly problematic given the difficulty of demonstrating ‘sexual intent towards a childà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦(previous case law) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦illustrates the extent to which some sex offenders are prepared to go to secure a child for sexual activity and the overt manner in which ‘grooming occurred. The penalty provisions of the Act generally invite one of two types of dispositions. For the more serious offences such as rape, the maximum penalty is 14 years in prison; for the lesser offences the maximum penalty is a 5 year term. Subject to the definitions contained in each section, most offences are also capable of prosecution by summary means and a corresponding maximum penalty of 6 months in prison, or fine in the alternative. These provisions are considered in the context of the suggested ‘over-criminalisation, below. Key words As noted in the introduction, five words and phrases extracted from the question are employed to advance the present analysis. ‘Children It is submitted that while the definition of ‘child may be variable and highly dependent upon the context of any particular sexual circumstance, the age parameters set out in the Act are generally appropriate for the following reasons. While a child aged 13 or under may have the physical maturity and the emotional desire to engage in sexual activity (this varies significantly from person to person), there is strong academic support for the proposition that a young person of this age will generally lack the appreciation of the consequences of sexual activity, coupled with a lack of emotional maturity to necessarily deal with the activity in a safe and socially acceptable manner. Further when children are provided with the opportunity to use the Internet to make contact with virtual strangers, one comprehensive study revealed that over 60 percent of a sampling of London children aged 10 to 13 had limited understanding of the extent to which others could potentially harm them if they were not discreet concerning their personal identifiers or if they agreed to meet someone they did not personally know. In many respects the statutory definition may be regarded as a societal approximation. For any critic of the Act who believes that the age bar is set to high, particularly with regard to the 13 to 16 year old age range that involves the additional consideration of the concept of honest and reasonable mistake as to age, there are significant segments of modern UK society that define a child not simply by their biological age but in terms of their status as members of the family household, or as unmarried persons. Without stereotyping a particular group, the conservative elements of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish faiths all hold strong cultural / religious views that would place the definition of a child above age 13, or above age 16 where the mistake defences are invoked. An anomaly in the legislation is the disparity between the general age of majority laws in the UK and the sexual offence age provisions in some circumstances, a person can have consensual sexual intercourse at age 16 but be prohibited from voting, consuming alcohol, or entering into most kinds of contracts. The justification for this anomaly is beyond the scope of this paper; it is acknowledged that a greater measure of uniformity of age limits promotes consistency and social utility. However, it is also to be noted that the provisions are in general accord with the corresponding European Union conventions. ‘Protection It is submitted that one may properly be uneasy when significant consideration is given to concepts of protection when the conduct, such as sexual activity, is generally discovered after the fact. The protection afforded the public is that of the combined effects of publicity concerning the provisions and deterrence associated with the criminal process. ‘Sexual abuse The Act has properly defined a broad range of sexual touching and physical contact as potentially constituting sexual abuse. The definition must be broad to encompass the psychological and emotional harm that can (but not always does) stem from any kind of assaultive behaviour, no matter how seemingly minor. Further, the risk of long term damage in such occurrences is well documented; ‘à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦More convincing evidence of the dangers of adult-child sexual activity comes from studies of cycles of sexual abuse The evidence is much stronger here-penetrative sexual acts by certain sorts of adults are virtually universal in paedophiles‘ childhood. Cramer reviewed numerous academic studies in this respect and concluded that ‘à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦it is not surprising that no measurable harm comes to some teenagers who knowingly consent to an involvement with adults just a few years older than themselves. In some communities with different laws, they might be old enough to be free to engage in sexual relations. ..However, this does not mean that all adult-young person sexual relations are invariably non-damaging-or that it is possible to predict ‘harmless‘ ones with any confidence. The question as posed carries the implicit suggestion that sexual activity involving a ‘consenting child (consent as defined in the Act) is not a risk to the child. Cramer properly identifies the fact that harm is a considerable variable for the reasons noted above. Further, all considerations of what is abusive behaviour deserving of societal sanction and what is acceptable will engage a number of different perspectives. As mentioned with respect to the definition of a child, the cultural and moral position of the child and their family may be a significant factor in how the activity is characterised. Biological, emotional and psychological considerations are also at stake. Given the passage of the Act by the UK Parliament, there must be some measure of societal acceptance of the statutory regime as one that properly reflects UK societal concerns regarding this activity. ‘Over-criminalise This term must be approached from two perspectives. The first is the effect of the statutory penalty sections. These provisions on their face provide significant latitude for a sentencing judge to fashion a disposition that meets the demands of each case. One would expect the cardinal sentencing rule of ‘worst offence, worst offender to draw the sentences approaching what is unquestionably a significant penalty of 14 years for rape; rape is equally a horrible offence. It is also clear that the mitigating factors of a positive relationship between the offender and child, relative age disparity, and similar issues must mitigate in the favour of the offender. The concern expressed for over-criminalisation is addressed at least in part through the power to deal with the extremely minor transgressions of this nature by way of the conditional caution provisions, or by virtue of the general powers of discretion vested in the Crown Prosecution Service. There are elements of UK society who may legitimately feel that public legislation that mandates certain proceedings or dispositions is far preferable a public interest safety mechanism than a discretion vested in the prosecution that is essentially unreviewable. Conditional cautions have attracted a mixed review in the UK press and legal commentaries; they are perceived in some quarters as a system soft on crime. However, the conditional caution mechanisms address precisely the issue posited in the present question while the Act may provide significant sentences in the proper case, like all other UK statutes, its effect is ameliorated by the discretionary caution. The distinctiveness of the administrative structure of the conditional caution has been furthered through the development of the Gravity Factor Matrix, an assessment tool developed by the Home Office to assist police services and prosecutors in the determination of which types of occurrences should be subject to a conditional caution. Police forces throughout the UK have now incorporated the matrix into their internal policy and procedures. The general considerations of both aggravating and mitigating circumstances are set out in detail; the Home Office issued a similarly comprehensive guideline concerning warnings for young offenders in May 2006. The use of the caution process enjoys a widespread acceptance with prosecutors, with 24 per cent of all UK criminal offences charged resulting in this disposition; 17per cent more conditional cautions were issued in 2005 over the previous year. Given this trend, concerns regarding the risk of over-criminalised youth sex activity are misplaced, provided the prosecutorial discretion remains active in the consideration of sexual offences. ‘Legitimate sexual behaviour The question is one that is loaded with the assumption that ‘children (depending upon the age definition) will innocently engage or perhaps experiment with sexual activity. In a hypothetical occurrence between a 14 year old boy and a 13 year old girl, where consent in the practical sense is alleged, it is difficult to imagine a reasonable person characterising the interaction as ‘sexual abuse† (subject to the cultural and religious observations noted above). The Act is clearly aimed at circumstances of the prescribed age difference creating a practical presumption of inequality, or the obvious circumstances of harm that are consistent with abuse. ‘Mistake It is contended that there is nothing within the framework of the Sexual Offences Act, 2003 that creates a potential deviation form the now well developed legal principles in support of the defence of mistake. Due statutory deference is paid to the fact that sexual offence circumstances are often emotionally charged, carrying the potential to affect recollection and perception,. For these reasons reasonable mistake of fact as to age must remain an available defence; wilful blindness and recklessness are relegated (as they should be) to the category of mitigation, if any. It seems doubtful given all of the factors noted above that the UK courts would embrace the de facto reverse onus now imposed upon an accused in these circumstances by the Supreme Court of Canada. The availability of mistake in the statutory regime is consistent with the European Convention provisions regarding the assurance of a fair trial. Conclusion The present question does not recognise the strengths of the Sexual Offences Act as they pertain to children who are victims of sexual assault. The act strikes an appropriate balance between individual rights and societal protection.

The Philosophy of Science Essay -- Realism

The study of the philosophy of science explores whether scientific results are actually the study of truth. Scientific realism is an area of study in the philosophy of science and has a contrasting view called anti realism. The debate between the two revolves around their disagreement between the existence of an external world. A scientific realist believes that an external world exists independent of our minds whereas the anti realist, or the idealists, believes that no such world exists outside of ourselves. A stick underwater seems bent while railway tracks seem to meet in the distance, when they do not. Our vision plays tricks on us and therefore the phenomena appears misleading. Seeing as there are doubtful sources to our experiences we cannot know anything derived from our senses. Moreover, the anti realist believes that matter, objects and the world, all exist as electric signals occurring in our brain. To illustrate, envision yourself eating a strawberry. You do not actually face the strawberry but only its perception in the brain. Simply put, the fruit is nothing but the interpretation of electrical signals, regarding the smell, taste, shape and so on. More importantly, the two differ on their interpretation of scientific theories that refer to unobservable entities. A scientific realist maintains the belief that unobservable entities, which make up many scientific theories, are in fact real world entities. Meaning, a berry is a berry regardless of what we perceive it to be. Anti realists state that theories distort reality by building on premises that are only seen indirectly and therefore should never be considered true. Hence the disagreements, the anti realist claims that the only thing that exist in reality are our ... ...uccess is not a miracle. Science has contributed more tangible and intangible success than any other field, i.e. religion. From the industrial revolution to the information age science has created medicine, travel, communication; it has opened the world to us. It contributed everything to our modern world whereas other ‘fields’ presented us with doubt, controversy, and death. Other theories, such as creationism, do not accept different alternatives, is not open for criticism and is meant to be taken at face value. Whereas science is continuously evolving. Theories are constantly being redefined when new data emerges and rejected when results differ the second time. Over time advances in technology could possibly convert many theories into fact. But till than we should believe who we feel has the most logical, rational and reasonable answers to our questions.

Self Concept Essay -- essays research papers

Self-concept emerges as a child develops an increasingly rich concept of him or herself, separating the notion of â€Å"I† from other people and objects. In addition to he concept of â€Å"I† a child develops a separate notion of â€Å"Me† which has certain defining features and qualities. William James defined â€Å"Me† as one that is observed and perceived. â€Å"It is the Me that one sees when attention is focused on the self, the Me as an object, represented in self-concepts, in how we see ourselves.† The notion of â€Å"I† is represented by actions of an individual. The â€Å"I† self-regulates, self-monitors, and presents the self to others in most appropriate way. Self-concepts involve an integration and organization of an enormous amount of information. The self-concepts are utilized with the individual’s past experiences as well as his or her future preferences. The individual who learns to perform more competently achieves more gratification and is also likely to develop more positive attitudes toward himself or herself. Once one can overcome fears and stressful feelings, one will become more confident as a result. Evaluation of one’s behavior may play a significant role on how the individual perceives himself. Critics of behavioral therapy note that people may suffer not because their behavior is inadequate but because they evaluate it improperly. Some people have problems with distorted self-concepts more than with performance. These distorted self-concepts can be seen as a person labels himself a...

Power and Leadership in Organizations Essay -- Empowerment Business Man

The topic that I chose for my semester project is Power and Leadership. The main points within the main subject I am focusing on are Power in Organizations, Sources of Power, The Dark Side of Power, and Empowerment. I will define each, apply them to every day business situations and theoretically analyze the context. The topics that I have chosen will give good insight to what Power and leadership really are and how they are used in are everyday businesses organizations to give a general understanding of what it means to be powerful. The first topic that I have chosen is Power in Organizations. Power is the ability of one person to influence another. They can use this power to become leaders and to manage businesses. Power also brings influence on the behavior and attitudes of other people. This can be applied to customers and/or suppliers. The demand for power is common among the business world. There is a difference in power and authority. Only people who hold formal positions have authority, whereas all people at any level of an organized company have the power to influence other people. Authority is power. It is power on another level. Power is obvious and understood, while authority is vested in a particular position. An example of such a position of authority would be the CEO of a company or a GM. The distinguishing aspect however lies between the position and the need to become more powerful. Where there is power, there are also consequences that go along with it. It depends on how the power is used and to whom it is inflicted. The consequences range from a number of general effects. There are three specific examples of this. They are commitment, compliance, and resistance. Power is the stronghold for the three fold outcome that is brought on through consequences. The first consequence is commitment. It can be as simple as following through with the task at hand or lack thereof. It is best defined in this way, â€Å"when the followers welcome the influence process and accept it as reasonable and legitimate.† (pg. 98) Commitment can be shown through an employee’s ability to complete the task they are given by the person with more power than they possess. They will change their ideals to match that of the higher authority. If the CEO of a company says that his proposal is going to change, in the mind of the employee, they agree to change... ...e to stick with it or else the employees will think they have failed. Empowerment is a good tool to bring out new ideas and thoughts to the organization. It gives employees a sense of self worth and they become more motivated when they have some independence. All in all it is a good idea only if you approach it the way I have explained. A thing to think about is that two minds are better than one when it comes to completing a task. I n conclusion I have talked about powers and leadership. The information that I have given all ties together in the sense that in an organization you have people with different types of power. The source of the power is what type of power they have and how the convey it to the employees. The most important topic I think is the dark side of power thus allowing your organization to become unfit for normal operation. Just because you have power doesn’t make you superior to other people it just puts you in charge. That is why I feel that empowerment it such a great idea it allows every one to have somewhat the some status or feeling in the company, this would allow you to be a better cohesive organization in hole.

Hamlet Exam Study Guide Essay

What should Hamlet do? Explain the moral theories of each philosopher: Plato, Aristotle and Augustine. For each, determine the right thing for Hamlet to do. Then, assess the prince’s actions from the perspective of each recommendation. Plato Plato’s moral theory consisted of the concept of the soul and the concept of virtue as function. To Plato, the soul has three parts; reason, spirit, and appetite. The reason we do things is to reach a goal or value, our spirit drives us to accomplish our goal, and our desire for things is our appetite. The three virtues that must be fulfilled to reach the fourth, general virtue are temperance, courage, and wisdom, which correlate with the three parts of the soul. In order to achieve inner harmony, every part of the soul must be fulfilling its proper function. In Plato’s theory, Hamlet needs to look at the big picture of achieving inner harmony. In order to reach the goal of achieving inner harmony, Hamlet has to figure out another way of easing his anger other than the vengeance of his uncle. The virtues of temperance, courage, and wisdom need to be incorporated into Hamlet’s actions, and he would be able to reach his inner harmony. By keeping his reason in control of his will and appetites, he can use the dialectic to fulfill the knowledge on how to deal with the situation. Hamlet’s big picture of inner harmony was the death of his uncle. He wasn’t concerned about the consequences he would have to face in result, such as not achieving his goal. He was more concerned about feeding his appetite of revenge, and not re-evaluating his virtuous life. Although he held out on murdering his uncle a couple of times, he was still in rage and trying to please his father’s ghost, whatever the consequences were. He loved his mother, and wanted to save her, but he was more concerned with killing his uncle. Hamlet was not able to achieve inner harmony, since he did not have a proper functioning soul. Aristotle Aristotle’s moral theory involves the idea of living your life to the fullest happiness that can be reached. In order to achieve this final, we need to live a virtuous life according to the Golden mean, which is finding the middle grounds of the virtues we live by. Aristotle explains that we should continuously act in accordance with virtues, which are acquired from our upbringing and experiences. Because Aristotle believed in teleology, he said that by aiming our actions toward an end (happiness), our souls need to work in the way of excellence. Like Plato, Aristotle also gears toward reaching a goal. In order for Hamlet to achieve the goal of happiness, he needs to follow the golden mean to live the ideal life. Hamlet and Aristotle had the same question; what does it mean to be? Hamlet’s famous statement â€Å"to be or not to be† meant he did not know exactly how to put his feelings into action. Is it better to live with the knowing of the murder of his father, or is it better to die in the act of revenge. Aristotle would have Hamlet evaluate how he can fulfill the function of being a good person. To do this, Hamlet needs to act on the rational part of his soul and make the right choice in dealing with his knowledge of his father’s murder. Hamlet needs to live by the virtues of courage, temperance, justice, and wisdom. If Hamlet makes rational decisions based on these virtues, he will understand that he needs to be able to communicate to Claudius and let him know that he will not get away with what he has done. As the Prince, he needs to take action as a ruler and set a good example for the people of Denmark and other kingdoms. Then again, Aristotle gave a pass of negative behavior to the involuntary acts that are done as a result of external compulsion. So, as he may say that everyone has the potential to be good, they may still slip up due to impulses such as revenge against the uncle who killed Hamlet’s father and re-wed his mother. In the act of aiming toward an end, Hamlet may choose whether or not to follow the instrumental road or the intrinsic road. Since Hamlet had a couple of chances to kill the King, he kept holding out until he thought he would have a perfect opportunity. In the beginning, he was following a virtuous life, and toward the end, when he claimed to have â€Å"bloody† thoughts, he was gearing more toward the impulsive irrational part of his soul. He eventually followed this road, but his soul was dying anyways. Augustine In order to have faith, we need to understand the reason for spirituality. To know universal truth, we have to go beyond human reason to discover God. Since the soul cannot find peace among bodily pleasures or sensations, we need to understand what will bring happiness to our lives and how we can succeed as humans. Since God created us, we will find happiness only in him. We have free will to choose the City of God or the City of the World. In choosing the City of God, we are putting our faith in God to guide us to make the right choices in finding happiness, not materialistic things or other people. By devoting our ultimate love to God and having faith that God can provide us with happiness, we can fulfill our destiny. For Augustine, Hamlet needs to start praying. He needs to open his heart and have faith in God to take care of the situation. Since we are Gods people, only God can bring justice. The king may have done something horrible, but he has to answer to God in the end. Hamlet needs to stay on the right track and pray that God can save him from his horrible thoughts of having revenge on the king. God is the only one who can bring happiness to our lives and help us to succeed as humans. Hamlet needs to choose the City of God, and make the right choices to not worry about punishing other people. This is the only way that he will achieve the goal of happiness. Unfortunately, Hamlet did not look to God for the answer. He may have said some prayers, and asked for guidance, but he certainly did not follow what he knew he was supposed to do. Instead, he listened to the ghost of his father and aimed towards revenge. Hamlet may have thought he achieved what he was out to do, but in the end, his mother was poisoned to death, his lover, Ophelia, died along with her brother, Laertes, as well as his other two friends he had killed in England, the king died, and so did Hamlet himself. If he would have put his trust in God to deal with the murder of his father, he could have saved himself along with everyone else he cared so deeply for. God always has a plan.

Cyber Crime

Crime   is   on   the   rise   just   about   everywhere   these   days,   but   nowhere   has   this   up   rise   in   crime   become   more   apparent   than   in   cyber   space.   Like   so   many   other   aspects   of   our   lives,   major   fraud   has   gone   high   tech.The   FBI   estimates   that   businesses   alone   lose   an   upwards   of   $1.5   trillion   annually   as   a   direct   result   of   cyber   crimes.   The   number   of   these   crimes   has   tripled   in   the   past   two   years   and   the   numbers   continue   to   climb.   (O’Leary   &   O’Leary)   p. 287Through   the   duration   of   this   essay   we   will   be   embarking   on   a   journey   into   the   dark   and   seedy   world   of   cyber   crime.   Within   this   text   you   will   find,   the   definition   of   cyber   crime,   the   most   typical   types   of   cyber   criminals,   as   well   as   the   most   common   forms   of   cyber   crime.The   exact   definition   of   cyber   crime   is   still   evolving.   (   www.davislogic.com/cybercrime.htm   ).   Cyber   crime,   or   computer   crime,   is   an   extremely   broad   term.   This   term   is   most   commonly   used   to   describe   criminal   activity   committed   where   a   computer   or   network   is   the   source,   tool,   or   target   of   a   crime.   Like   traditional   crime,   cyber   crime   can   take   many   shapes   and   occur   at   any   time   or   any   place.When   an   individual   is   the   main   target   of   cyber   crime,   the   computer à ‚  can   be   considered   a   tool   rather   than   the   target.   These   crimes   generally   involve   less   technical   expertise   as   the   damage   done   manifests   itself   in   the   real   world.   In   these   types   of   cases   the   damage   dealt   is   primarily   psychological.By   now   many   of   us     are   all   too   familiar   with   spam.   Spam   or   spamming   refers   to   the   abuse   of   electronic   messaging   systems   to   send   unsolicited   bulk   messages indiscriminately.   While   the   most   widely   recognized   form   of   spam   is   e-mail   spam,   the   term   can   also   be   applied   to   similar   abuses   in   other   media.Some   of   these   abuses   include;   instant   messaging   spam,   web   search   engine   spam,   s pam   in   blogs,   wiki   spam,   mobile   phone   messaging   spam,   social   networking   spam,   as   well   as   internet   forum   spam. As   applied   to   email,   specific   anti-spam   laws   are   relatively   new,   however   limits   on   unsolicited   electronic   communications   have   existed   in   some   forms   for   some   time.Another   common   crime   plauging   cyber   space   is   identity   theft.   Internet   identity   theft   is   different   from   common   identity   theft   in   a   few   different   ways.   Common   identity   theft   is   different   from   common   identity   theft   takes   place   after   something   is   physically   stolen   from you   like   a   wallet   containing   credit   cards   and   a   driver’s   license   or   an   un-shredded   credit   card   statement from   your   garbage   bin.The   thief   would   take   these   stolen   articles   and   use   them   to   make   a   fraudulent   purchase   or   something   of   that  Ã‚   nature. Internet   identity   theft   can   be   much   more   devastating   than   conventional   identity   theft   at   times   due   to   the   fact   that   most   victims   of   internet   identity   theft   are   completely   unaware   that   anything   has   been   stolen   from   them   until   it   is   far   too   late.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Gone   are   the   days   when   we   had   to   step   outside   to   purchase   our   groceries,   book   flights,   and   vacations,   or   simply   transfer   money   between   bank   accounts.Today,   we   can   simply   grab   our   checkbooks,   debit   cards   or   credit   cards,   sit   down   at   a   computer   in   the   comfort   and   safety   of   our   home,   and   complete   these   transactions   with passwords   and   PIN   numbers.Thanks   to   advances   in   technology,   the   types of   transactions   we   can   now   complete   online   are   virtually   endless.   Unfortunately,   the   increase   in   online transactions   has   been   accompanied   byà ‚   an   increase   in   online   identity   theft.   Fraudulent   access   to   personal information   over   the   internet   is   increasingly   prevalent   and   sophisticated.Two   forms   of     identity   theft   are   at   the   forefront   of   this   internet   piracy are   phishing   and   pharming.     Both   pharming   and   phishing   are   methods   used   to   steal   personal   information   from   unsuspecting   people   over   the   internet.   Phishing   typically   involves   fraudulent   bulk   email   messages   that   guide   recipients   to   (legitimate   looking)   fake   web   sites   and   try   to get   them   to   supply   personal   information   like   account   passwords.   Pharming   is   in   many   ways   similar   to   phishing.Pharmers   also   send   emails.   The   consumer,   however,   can   be   duped   by   the   pharmer   without   even opening   an   email   attachment.   The   consumer   compromises   his   personal   financial   information   simply   by opening   the   email   message.The   pharming   email   message   contains   a   virus   that   installs   a   small   software   program   on   the   end   user’s   computer.   Subsequently,   when   the   consumer   tries   to visit   an   official   web   site,   the   pharmer’s   software   program   redirects   the   browser   to   the   pharmer’s   fake   version   of   the   web   site.   This   allows   the   pharmer   to   capture   the   personal   financial   information that   the   consumer   enters   into   the   counterfeit   web   site,   and   the   consumer’s   a ccount   is   again   compromised.The   latest   form   of   pharming   does   not   require   email   at   all.   Password   stealing   Trojan   horses   can   attack   through   Microsoft   Messenger   where   key loggers   are   run.   Key loggers   are   viruses   that   track   a   user’s   keystrokes   on   legitimate   sites   and   steal   passwords,   allowing   a   thief   to   have   access   to   a   consumer’s   password   for   future   fraudulent   transactions.The   most   common   blunder   people   make   when   the   topic   of   a   computer   virus   arises   is   to   refer   to   a worm   or   Trojan   horse   as   a   virus.   While   the   words   Trojan,   worm   and   virus   are   often   used   interchangeably,   they   are   not   exactly   the   same.à ‚  Viruses,   worms   and   Trojan   horses   are   all   malicious   programs that   can   cause   damage   to   your   computer,   but   there   are   differences   among   the   three,   and   knowing   those   differences   can   help   you   to   better   protect   your   computer   from   their   often   damaging   effects.A   computer   virus   attaches   itself   to   a   program   or   file   enabling   it   to   spread   from   one   computer   to another,   leaving   infections   as   it   travels.   Like   a   human   virus,   a   computer   virus   can   range   in   severity. Some   viruses   may   cause   only   mildly   annoying   effects   while   others   can   damage   your   hardware,   software   or   files.Almost   all   viruses   are   attached   to   an   executable   file ,   which   means   the   virus   may   exist   on   your computer,   however,   it   may   not   actually   infect   your   computer   unless   you   run   or   open   the   malicious   program.  It   is   important   to   note   that   a   virus   cannot   be   spread   without   human   action,   such   as   running an   infected   program   in   order   to   keep   it   going.   People   continue   the   spread   of   a   computer   virus,   mostly unknowingly,   by   sharing   infecting   files   or   sending emails   viruses   as   attachments   in   the   email.In   summary,   the   same   types   of   fraud   schemes   that   have   victimized   consumers   and   investors   for   many years   before   the   creation   of   the   internet   are   now   appearing   online.  In   the   process,   they   not   only   cause   harm   to   consumers   and   investors,   but   also   undermine   consumer   confidence   in   legitimate   e-commerce   and   the   internet.People   who   commit   cyber   crime   are   cyber   criminals.   Like   cyber   crime,   cyber   criminals   can   take   many   forms.   These   criminals   are   typically   terrorists,   child   predators,   members   of   organized   crime,   employees,   outside   users,   hackers   and   crackers.   It   is   important   to   point   out   the   difference   between   hackers   and   crackers.   Hackers   are   individuals   who   gain   unauthorized   access   to   a   computer   system   simply   for   the   thrill of   it.   Crackers   do   the   same   thing,   but   for   malicious   purposes.Computer   hackin g   is   most   common   among   teenagers   and   young   adults,   although   there   are   many older   hackers   as   well.   Many   hackers   are   true   technology   buffs   who   enjoy   learning   more   about   how computers   work   and   consider   computer   hacking   an   art   form.   They   often   enjoy   programming   and   have expert   level   skills   in   one   particular   program.For   these   individuals,   computer   hacking   is   a   real   life   application   of   their   problem   solving   skills.   It   is   perceived   as   a   chance   to   demonstrate,   or   showcase   their abilities,   and   talents,   and   not   an   opportunity   to   harm   others.Cracking   is   the   act   of   breaking   into   a   computer   system,   often   on   a   network.   Cont rary   to   popular   belief,   crackers   are   hardly   mediocre   hackers.  Ã‚   Computer   hackers   were   early   pioneers   of   computing.   These   early   pioneers   were   frantically   dedicated   to   inventing   and   exploring   how   things   worked.   As   a   part   of   the   sixties   generation,   these   hackers   were   also   prone   toward   being   anti-establishment   and   somewhat   disrespectful   towards   property   rights.Eventually   a   pair   of   these   hackers,   Steve   Wozniak   and   Steven   Jobs,   hacked   together   the   first   commercially   successful   personal   computer,   the   Apple.   The   sixties   generation   hackers   flooded   this   new   industry   and   many   quickly   attained   positions   of   wealth   and   authority   creating   the   inf ormation   communications   ecology   that   dominates   Western   life.   Meanwhile,   two   things   happened.1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     A   new   generation   of   hackers   emerged.2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The   world   economic   and   social   order   went   completely   digital,   and   so   crime   as   we   know   it   went   digital   as   well.It   is   somewhere   at   the   interstices   of   the   new   generation   of   alienated   young   hackers   ( they   sometimes   refer   to   themselves   as   Ã¢â‚¬Å"cyberpunks† )   and   the   world   of   sometimes   organized   crime   that   we   locate the   concept   of   the   cracker.   The   term   is,   to   some   degree,   an   attempt   by   the   now   established   older-generation   hackers   to   separate   themselves   from   computer   crime.The   debate   still   rages   as   to   what   constitutes   the   difference   between   hacking   and   cracking.   Some   say   that   cracking   represents   any   and   all forms   of   rule   breaking   and   illegal   activity   using   a   computer.   Others   would   define   cracking   only   as   particularly   destructive   criminal   acts.  Others   would   claim   that   the   early   hackers   were   explicitly   anarchistic   and   that   acts   of   willful   destruction   against   Ã¢â‚¬Å"the   system†   have   a   place   in   the   hacker   ethos,   and   that   therefore   the   term   cracker   is   unnecessary   and   insulting.This   concludes   our   journey   into   the   world   of   cyber   crime.   Through   the   course   of   our   journey   we   have   successfully   defined   cyber   crime,   identified   typical   cyber   criminals,   and   discussed   some   of  Ã‚   the   most   common   forms   of   cyber   crime.The   effects   of   cyber   crime   are   far   reaching.   It   would   be   a   difficult   task   to   find   someone   who   has   never   been   affected   by   malicious   internet   activity,   or   who   does   not at   the   very   least   know   someone   who   has   been   negatively   impacted   by   cyber   criminals.  Advances   in internet   technology   and   services   continue   to   open   up   innumerable   opportunities   for   learning,   networking and   increasing   productivity.   However,   malware   authors,   spammers   and   phishers   are   also   rapidly   adopting   new   and   varied   attack   vectors .If   the   internet   is   to   become   a   safer   place,   it   is   imperative   to   understand   the   trends   and   developments   taking   place   in   the   internet   threat   landscape   and   maintain   online security   practices.   Internet   threats   continue   to   increase   in   volume   and   severity.It   is   important   that   computer   users   are   on   guard   in   order   to   make   themselves   less   vulnerable   to   risks   and   threats.   Staying on   top   of   the   trends   and   developments   taking   place   in   online   security   is   critical   for   both   industry   researchers   and   all   computer   users   alike.  References  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   O’Leary,   T. J. ,   &   O’Leary   L.   I.   (   2008   ) .   Computing   essentials   introductory    2008.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   New   York:   The   McGraw-Hill   Companies.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cyber   Crime.   (   2008   ) .   Types   of   cyber   crime.   Retrieved   September   27th   ,   2008 ,  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   From   http://www.davislogic.com/cybercrime.htm